Mahayana Buddhism—and this is its indisputable originality—while thus establishing a spiritual life wholly devoted to activity, worship, and mercy, developed to their ultimate consequences the nihilistic principles of the ancient Buddhist school. The Buddha—at least, the most archaic tradition bears witness to it—had affirmed that there is no permanent “self,” and taught that man is nothing other than a complex of elements, some material, others spiritual, whose integrity across successive existences is maintained by the responsibility for actions, and whose dissolution will necessarily follow the “tasting” of the fruits of past actions and the cessation of new actions. Mahayana Buddhism systematized and rationally “demonstrated” this doctrine; moreover, it recognized that phenomena themselves do not truly exist, and summed up all psychology and cosmology in this single word: “emptiness” (śūnyatā). By knowledge of “emptiness,” the illusion of thought is dispelled. The perfect illumination of the Buddhas is nothing other than this.
1. I use the capital letter to distinguish these two categories of future Buddhas: the Bodhisattvas, or “future Buddhas who are beginners” (âdikarmikā), in whom there is at least a desire for charity; but they may lack both morality and knowledge; they may commit grave sins and be reborn in the hells, etc. The Bodhisattvas not only avoid all sin but possess a “body of enjoyment” (sambhogakāya); they sit enthroned in the Paradises beside the Buddhas; they incarnate and manifest themselves in all worlds, the hells included, to save creatures. The “terraces” or “grades” of the “future Buddhas” number sometimes ten (Mahāvastu, Daçabhūmaka, Madhyamakāvatāra), sometimes five (Bodhisattvabhūmi). I shall not enter into the details here (See the “Summary of the Bodhisattvabhūmi” in Muséon II, 1890 and following, and the Madhyamakâvatâra, Tibetan text in Bibliotheca Buddhica and translation in preparation).
1. I use the capital letter to distinguish these two categories of future Buddhas: the Bodhisattvas, or “future Buddhas who are beginners” (âdikarmikā), in whom there is at least a desire for charity; but they may lack both morality and knowledge; they may commit grave sins and be reborn in the hells, etc. The Bodhisattvas not only avoid all sin but possess a “body of enjoyment” (sambhogakāya); they sit enthroned in the Paradises beside the Buddhas; they incarnate and manifest themselves in all worlds, the hells included, to save creatures. The “terraces” or “grades” of the “future Buddhas” number sometimes ten (Mahāvastu, Daçabhūmaka, Madhyamakāvatāra), sometimes five (Bodhisattvabhūmi). I shall not enter into the details here (See the “Summary of the Bodhisattvabhūmi” in Muséon II, 1890 and following, and the Madhyamakâvatâra, Tibetan text in Bibliotheca Buddhica and translation in preparation).
that the consciousness of universal emptiness, that is to say, a definitive non-consciousness.
4. To become Buddha, the faithful one must, as we have said, acquire the merits (puṇya) and the knowledge (jñāna) of a Buddha. This is the twofold provision, the twofold “equipment” (sambhāra). By merits, one chiefly means “giving” or charity; by knowledge, the science of emptiness: the contradiction seems glaring. But, as refined psychologists, the Buddhists observe that it is impossible to be charitable if one believes in the permanence and existence of the “self”; that, on the other hand, the illusion of egoism is too deeply rooted for the abstract view of ontological nothingness to destroy it at the first stroke: not only repeated exercise (abhyāsa) is needed, but also practical training, that is to say, the habit of giving, the habit of sacrificing oneself for one’s neighbour. Science and charity are therefore like the two wings of a bird; they complement and perfect one another.
The faithful Bodhisattva must first, in the presence of all the Buddhas and all the Bodhisattvas, vow to become Buddha for the salvation of creatures; he dedicates all his good works to this purpose, and practises the perfect virtues (pāramitās), which are charity, both spiritual and temporal works; morality, or observance of the prohibitory precepts of ancient Buddhism; patience, both in regard to suffering and to insults; and science, that is to say, the true knowledge of emptiness. The virtues of strength and meditation, recollection or concentration of thought, serve to acquire merit and knowledge.
4. To become Buddha, the faithful one must, as we have said, acquire the merits (puṇya) and the knowledge (jñāna) of a Buddha. This is the twofold provision, the twofold “equipment” (sambhāra). By merits, one chiefly means “giving” or charity; by knowledge, the science of emptiness: the contradiction seems glaring. But, as refined psychologists, the Buddhists observe that it is impossible to be charitable if one believes in the permanence and existence of the “self”; that, on the other hand, the illusion of egoism is too deeply rooted for the abstract view of ontological nothingness to destroy it at the first stroke: not only repeated exercise (abhyāsa) is needed, but also practical training, that is to say, the habit of giving, the habit of sacrificing oneself for one’s neighbour. Science and charity are therefore like the two wings of a bird; they complement and perfect one another.
The faithful Bodhisattva must first, in the presence of all the Buddhas and all the Bodhisattvas, vow to become Buddha for the salvation of creatures; he dedicates all his good works to this purpose, and practises the perfect virtues (pāramitās), which are charity, both spiritual and temporal works; morality, or observance of the prohibitory precepts of ancient Buddhism; patience, both in regard to suffering and to insults; and science, that is to say, the true knowledge of emptiness. The virtues of strength and meditation, recollection or concentration of thought, serve to acquire merit and knowledge.
5. As its title indicates, “The Introduction to the Practice of the Bodhisattvas,” a development of the outline just set forth, is a treatise on the spiritual life that leads to the state of Buddha. The author, Çāntideva, a theologian of the seventh century, sets forth a doctrine that had long been traditional, there can be no doubt. To what extent he may have perfected it, and to what extent he deserves credit for the moving or ingenious thoughts that abound in his work, can be stated with some precision. But this is not of pressing interest for the present, since the reader is little concerned with our author’s literary renown or holiness. Let us say only that several of his stanzas, together forming a complete ritual: “confession of sins, refuge in Buddha, rejoicing in Buddha, dedication of merit, self-surrender, etc.,” are canonical. — In reading Çāntideva, we learn to know the Buddhism of the Great Vehicle and the spiritual life it teaches.
1) Before the Buddhas, before their sons [the Bodhisattvas], before the body of the Law, I bow with deep reverence, and before all spiritual friends; for I am about to set forth the path of the religious life of the sons of the Buddhas, without departing from Scripture, but in brief.
2) I have nothing new to say, indeed, and I am no artist in literary composition: if I have made this book, it is only to sanctify my own heart, and without having the benefit of my neighbor in view.
1) Before the Buddhas, before their sons [the Bodhisattvas], before the body of the Law, I bow with deep reverence, and before all spiritual friends; for I am about to set forth the path of the religious life of the sons of the Buddhas, without departing from Scripture, but in brief.
2) I have nothing new to say, indeed, and I am no artist in literary composition: if I have made this book, it is only to sanctify my own heart, and without having the benefit of my neighbor in view.
3) [To sanctify my own heart?] For, as I meditate upon it, the stream of my purified thoughts ever more powerfully turns towards the good. — But will my book have no other use, should it happen that a man like unto me come to know it?
4) How difficult to obtain this blessed state, which unites all the conditions of temporal happiness and deliverance! If a man fail to use it to reflect upon salvation, such an encounter will be gone for a long while.
5) As a flash of lightning shines for an instant in the darkness of night and clouds, so, by the grace of the Buddha, it happens that the thoughts of men turn for an instant towards the good; devoted to evil from the beginning, how could they abide therein?
6) Therefore the merits acquired are ever powerless to contend with the irresistible force of dreadful sin. Were it not for the thought of Bodhi, what virtue could overcome the force of sin?
7) Throughout the many millennia of their course as bodhisattvas, the Buddha-Kings meditated: they discovered this thought of Bodhi, truly salutary, since it brings the countless multitude of beings without effort to the supreme happiness [of Bodhi].
8) Would you cross the thousand pains of existence, calm the sufferings of creatures, and taste a thousand and a thousand joys? Never abandon the thought of Bodhi.
4) How difficult to obtain this blessed state, which unites all the conditions of temporal happiness and deliverance! If a man fail to use it to reflect upon salvation, such an encounter will be gone for a long while.
5) As a flash of lightning shines for an instant in the darkness of night and clouds, so, by the grace of the Buddha, it happens that the thoughts of men turn for an instant towards the good; devoted to evil from the beginning, how could they abide therein?
6) Therefore the merits acquired are ever powerless to contend with the irresistible force of dreadful sin. Were it not for the thought of Bodhi, what virtue could overcome the force of sin?
7) Throughout the many millennia of their course as bodhisattvas, the Buddha-Kings meditated: they discovered this thought of Bodhi, truly salutary, since it brings the countless multitude of beings without effort to the supreme happiness [of Bodhi].
8) Would you cross the thousand pains of existence, calm the sufferings of creatures, and taste a thousand and a thousand joys? Never abandon the thought of Bodhi.
9) The wretched man whom the passions bind in this prison which is existence is at once proclaimed a son of the Sugatas: he becomes venerable in the world of men and immortals, as soon as the thought of Bodhi arises in him.
10) This impure body becomes that priceless jewel which is a Buddha-body: take, take the elixir that brings about so wondrous a transformation, and is called the thought of Bodhi.
11) This jewel of the thought of Bodhi, which the supremely wise, the peerless guides of the world’s caravan, have tested and found most precious—O ye who pass from one existence to another [as merchants go from market to market], take, take this jewel!
12) Like the banana tree, all merit perishes when it bears fruit; but, like a tree, the thought of Bodhi bears fruit at all times and is never exhausted; it is truly fruitful.
13) Though he have committed frightful sins, a man surmounts them at once if he takes refuge in the thought of Bodhi. Turn to it, blind creatures, as the guilty seek the protection of a hero!
14) It consumes great sins in an instant, with the heat of the cosmic fire. — Read the boundless praises bestowed upon it by the Bodhisattva, the protector Maitreya, in his replies to Sudhana.
15) In sum, there are two thoughts of Bodhi: the vow of Bodhi, and the journey towards Bodhi.
10) This impure body becomes that priceless jewel which is a Buddha-body: take, take the elixir that brings about so wondrous a transformation, and is called the thought of Bodhi.
11) This jewel of the thought of Bodhi, which the supremely wise, the peerless guides of the world’s caravan, have tested and found most precious—O ye who pass from one existence to another [as merchants go from market to market], take, take this jewel!
12) Like the banana tree, all merit perishes when it bears fruit; but, like a tree, the thought of Bodhi bears fruit at all times and is never exhausted; it is truly fruitful.
13) Though he have committed frightful sins, a man surmounts them at once if he takes refuge in the thought of Bodhi. Turn to it, blind creatures, as the guilty seek the protection of a hero!
14) It consumes great sins in an instant, with the heat of the cosmic fire. — Read the boundless praises bestowed upon it by the Bodhisattva, the protector Maitreya, in his replies to Sudhana.
15) In sum, there are two thoughts of Bodhi: the vow of Bodhi, and the journey towards Bodhi.
16) As is the difference between one who wishes to depart and one who is already on the way, so is the difference which the wise establish between the two thoughts of Bodhi.
17) The mere wish for Bodhi bears great fruits of temporal happiness [not to speak of salvation]; but for one who possesses the active thought of Bodhi, his thought is transformed into an unceasing river of merit.
18-19) As soon as he has taken possession of this thought, for the liberation of all beings in this universe, in a soul that can no longer turn back; as soon as this is so, despite sleep and frequent distractions, unceasing torrents of his merit swell up to the empyrean.
20) This virtue of the thought of Bodhi was affirmed and explained by the Tathâgata Himself in the Suhr̥llekhapari-pr̥cchāsūtra, for the salvation of men who wish to enter the lesser Vehicle.
21) The resolve to relieve [whether by spells or by remedies] the headache [of a few people] is a resolve of boundless merit.
22) What, then, of one who wishes to free each of the countless creatures from immeasurable suffering, and to endow it with inestimable qualities?
23) In whom has there ever been, in the past or in the future, such a desire for such good? In what mother, in what father, in what god, in what solitary, in what brahman?
17) The mere wish for Bodhi bears great fruits of temporal happiness [not to speak of salvation]; but for one who possesses the active thought of Bodhi, his thought is transformed into an unceasing river of merit.
18-19) As soon as he has taken possession of this thought, for the liberation of all beings in this universe, in a soul that can no longer turn back; as soon as this is so, despite sleep and frequent distractions, unceasing torrents of his merit swell up to the empyrean.
20) This virtue of the thought of Bodhi was affirmed and explained by the Tathâgata Himself in the Suhr̥llekhapari-pr̥cchāsūtra, for the salvation of men who wish to enter the lesser Vehicle.
21) The resolve to relieve [whether by spells or by remedies] the headache [of a few people] is a resolve of boundless merit.
22) What, then, of one who wishes to free each of the countless creatures from immeasurable suffering, and to endow it with inestimable qualities?
23) In whom has there ever been, in the past or in the future, such a desire for such good? In what mother, in what father, in what god, in what solitary, in what brahman?
24 Never, in any creature, even when self-interested, even in a dream, had such a wish arisen; still more unheard of is one wholly disinterested.
25 Whence comes to us the bodhisattva, the peerless, incomparable jewel? Others, even in their own interest, desire not the good of another.
26 This jewel of thought, the thought of Bodhi, seed of the world’s joy, remedy for the world’s suffering—how shall we esteem its holiness?
27 The mere desire for the good of the world is more meritorious than worship of the Buddha. What shall we say, then, of [the Bodhisattva’s] efforts for the complete happiness of every creature?
28-30 It is toward suffering that men hasten, seeking escape from suffering; in their desire for happiness, they are their own enemies, and, like madmen, cast away their happiness. They crave happiness and are ever tormented. Where shall we find such goodness, such a friend, such great holiness, as in him who shall satisfy them with every happiness, appease their torments, and enlighten their folly?
31 We praise those who return good for good: what shall we say of the Bodhisattva, who gives of his own accord?
32 We praise him who offers a charitable feast to a few people; we say that he does good: his prodigality lasts but an hour, and the meagre provisions he proudly supplies sustain the poor for barely half a day!
25 Whence comes to us the bodhisattva, the peerless, incomparable jewel? Others, even in their own interest, desire not the good of another.
26 This jewel of thought, the thought of Bodhi, seed of the world’s joy, remedy for the world’s suffering—how shall we esteem its holiness?
27 The mere desire for the good of the world is more meritorious than worship of the Buddha. What shall we say, then, of [the Bodhisattva’s] efforts for the complete happiness of every creature?
28-30 It is toward suffering that men hasten, seeking escape from suffering; in their desire for happiness, they are their own enemies, and, like madmen, cast away their happiness. They crave happiness and are ever tormented. Where shall we find such goodness, such a friend, such great holiness, as in him who shall satisfy them with every happiness, appease their torments, and enlighten their folly?
31 We praise those who return good for good: what shall we say of the Bodhisattva, who gives of his own accord?
32 We praise him who offers a charitable feast to a few people; we say that he does good: his prodigality lasts but an hour, and the meagre provisions he proudly supplies sustain the poor for barely half a day!
33 What can be said of the Bodhisattva who, for a measureless span of time—until the end of time—grants the multitude of beings the perfect fulfilment of all their desires?
34 Such is the son of the Buddha, master of the true feast. The Buddha declared: “Whoever sins in his heart against him remains in hell for as many centuries as the evil thought lasted seconds.”
35 But when the heart grows calm and takes delight in the Bodhisattva, it is a merit so great that it destroys former sins. Must one not truly do violence to oneself to offend the Bodhisattvas? Is it not quite natural to love them?
36 I pay homage to the bodies of the Bodhisattvas in whom this excellent jewel of good thought has appeared: even to offend them brings good fortune. I take refuge in the Bodhisattvas, mines of bliss.
34 Such is the son of the Buddha, master of the true feast. The Buddha declared: “Whoever sins in his heart against him remains in hell for as many centuries as the evil thought lasted seconds.”
35 But when the heart grows calm and takes delight in the Bodhisattva, it is a merit so great that it destroys former sins. Must one not truly do violence to oneself to offend the Bodhisattvas? Is it not quite natural to love them?
36 I pay homage to the bodies of the Bodhisattvas in whom this excellent jewel of good thought has appeared: even to offend them brings good fortune. I take refuge in the Bodhisattvas, mines of bliss.